The following note was transcribed using OCR from materials presented at the “Forum on Undergraduate Toxicology Coursework” held February 22, 1992, in Seattle, WA, as a satellite to the annual meeting of the Society of Toxicology.

A Symposium and Workshop on Toxicology Training, organized by NIEHS, was held in Raleigh, North Carolina, February 28-30, 1980 and a Report was published a year later (Veterinary and Human Toxicology 23, 1981). The section “Some Special Toxicology Education and Training Programs” was prepared and represented the status and promise of those programs at that time. Tabulated data concerning curricula and post-baccalaureate activities of graduates lead to the conclusion that the science education and training within these programs is virtually identical to that in a myriad of fields at those or similar institutions. There is a need for a similar survey in the 1990s.

Robert I. Krieger

Technical Assessment Systems, Inc.

October 5, 1992

The following article was transcribed using OCR from the journal Veterinary and Human Toxicology 23(2):117-122 [1981].

SOME SPECIAL TOXICOLOGY EDUCATION

AND TRAINING PROGRAMS

Prepared by Robert I. Krieger

University of California Davis, California 95616

Present address Veterinary Medicine, University

of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83843.

Toxicology has concurrently enjoyed and endured a recent burst of growth resulting from increased dialogue about health and environmental effects of chemical-based technologies. The responses of academic, industrial, regulatory, and public sectors to new information about the biological effects of excessive amounts of chemicals have varied considerably. Students at all levels of advanced study have perceived new opportunities for service and security in toxicology. This report is about some academic responses to the present climate in universities and colleges. The forum provided by NIEHS provided an opportunity for educators who are developing "special programs" to discuss many important issues in toxicology education and training.

Many toxicologists have taken an armslength, or even negative, attitude toward development of baccalaureate and other special programs in toxicology. In times during which the disciplinary and professional needs of toxicologists are frequently the subjects of concern, it is somewhat surprising, and occasionally discouraging, that many individuals have resisted innovation in education and training in toxicology. Improving the quality of these and other similar programs will require the continued attention of persons in all sectors (academia, industry, government, public).

Biochemistry, nutrition, physiology, genetics and a list of many well-established “economic zoologies” (entomology, plant pathology, nematology) are contemporary academic programs which have been developed from more basic areas of study, ie physics, chemistry, and biology. Careful examination of the nature and scope of baccalaureate and other special programs will reveal that they are very similar to these college and university programs. Their emergence onto the academic scene is more the product of student interest in educational alternatives and faculty commitments to teaching than it is the result of doomsday projections about the disparity between demands (usually unspecified) for trained personnel and existing numbers of qualified toxicologists.

It is important to note that discussions of special programs at the Raleigh meetings were by no means comprehensive in their coverage. Education and training activities in forensic toxicology, occupational medicine and toxicology, and clinical toxicology unfortunately were not included. Sharply increased numbers of continuing education alternatives including numerous conferences, workshops, and short courses warrant consideration and evaluation. Some of these could be classed as special programs in continuing education (Gibson, Vet Human Toxicol, 21: 180, 1979). Valuable knowledge of education and training alternatives would likely result from future meetings such as this Symposium and Workshop on Toxicology Education and Training.

Participating in the discussions from which this report was derived were Drs David Brown and Jeffrey Blumberg of Northeastern University, Dr Gary Lage of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science, Dr Jean Scholler of the University of San Francisco, Dr James Seiber of the University of California, Davis, Dr I Glenn Sipes of the University of Arizona, and Dr Robert Snyder of Thomas Jefferson University. Each of these persons provided written descriptions of their respective programs which have been liberally plagiarized. The author accepts responsibility for errors of omission or other oversights.

Bachelor of Science: University of California, Davis', Noriheastern University; Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science.

Baccalaureate programs in toxicology are relatively recent additions to the academic scene. Schools of pharmacy at Northeastern University and the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science have recently implemented programs similar to program

initiated in 1968 at St John's University. The Department of Environmental Toxicology in the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences at Davis intro-duced a baccalaureate degree in Environmental Toxicology in 1975.

The programs at Northeastern, Philadelphia, and Davis share the common goal of providing undergraduate education and training in toxicology. The programs are the products of their unique academic environments. Each has particular distinguishing characteristics which here can only be briefly reviewed. More detailed descriptions can be obtained from the respective college catalogues and from an Appendix to this report which is available from NIEHS.

Students who elect Environmental Toxicology at Davis, select the major from a list of 42 options from Agrarian Studies to Zoology and including a virtually unrestricted category Individual Major. Whether or not the proliferation of academic majors is viewed as desirable or not, the tendency of faculty to form special education programs results in a large number of disciplinary options for baccalaureate study. The baccalaureate toxicology programs of the 3 institutions represented at the Workshop offer contemporary curricula which verv closely resemble degree programs in other sciences such as chemistry, biological science, zoology, physiology. Baccalaureate studies in toxicology directed by professionals are simply one of the newer options.

The concern that baccalaureate programs in toxicology will weaken undergraduate education and training is not supported by study of existing curricula (Table 1). For convenience, coursework in 4 institutions which offer baccalaureate degrees has been listed by semester credit unit. Courses have been classified as preparatory subject matter and depth subject matter. In every case the preparatory subject matter is equivalent to that required of other "hard science" majors. Depth (or"pre-professional" coursework) subject matter includes upper division courses in toxicology and related disciplines. Similarities between the curricula are immediately obvious by examination of Table 1. Qualitative differences among graduates are to be expected on the bases of differing student aptitudes and interests as well as of intrinsic characteristics of parent academic institutions.

Both Northeastern and Philadelphia include periods of full-time training in a governmental, industrial, or academic toxicology units. Northeastern most completely integrates classroom instruction and experience. The cooperative experience, required of all Northeastern undergraduates, begins in the second year of study. Students elect 3- or 6-month blocks of training with a minimum of 12 months of Co-op experience being required for graduation. Institutions in Boston, Washington, DC, and New York City are among current sites of Co-op study.

(Degrees are awarded after 5 years of study) The industrial traineeship requirement at Philadelphia is scheduled for an 8-month interval between the third and fourth years of study. Goals of the Philadelphia traineeship program are similar to those of Northeastern. About half of the students at Davis participate on an elective basis in research or other activities in toxicology to obtain work experience. It is also possible for students to obtain academic credit on an elective basis in toxicology-related part-time positions at Davis. These examples illustrate that faculty have clearly recognized that importance of providing students opportunities for pre-professional training experience as part of their undergraduate studies.

Following discussion of the characteristics of existing programs, participants in the special programs work group listed several requisite features of programs for adequate baccalaureate education and training in toxicology. They included the following: Professional faculty committed to excellence in teaching and research in toxicology; Coursework in toxicology and related disciplines including chemistry, biology, biochemistry, pharmacology, pathology, and physiology; Laboratory facilities to accommodate analytical and biological coursework (including AAALAC approved animal quarters); and Opportunity for pre-professional experience in governmental, industrial and academic settings.

Among the positive impacts of such programs will be a strong identity of toxicology to the University community students, faculty, staff and administrators. General course's in toxicology will be used as electives in other undergraduate and graduate programs. A successful course for science and non-science students at Davis has been described (Krieger et al, Vet Human Toxicol 21:352, 1979). As the discipline of toxicology is increasingly associated at all level with decision-making about chemical technologies, the mere presence of strong undergraduate teaching programs represents an opportunity for the sorely needed infusion of toxicology into the academic experience of the educated public.

An additional indirect impact is that the existence of a degree-generating program is critical in the quest for enrollment, new faculty, and resources within colleges and universities. The possibility that the enrollment of the Philadelphia program will constitute 10-20% of the total undergraduate student body potentially represents a profound institutional impact of baccalaureate toxicology. To a lesser extent growth in the Department of Environmental Toxicology at Davis has occurred as a consequence of a recently expanded curriculum which now offers both graduate and undergraduate instruction. Further immediate expansion and maturation of education and training programs during the 1980s will occur during times of fiscal austerity and steadytate enrollments in colleges and universities. These new options in undergraduate instruction seem to have a strong potential for fiscal and programmatic growth.

Representatives of each of the institutions stressed that the BS programs are attracting the interest of talented, service-oriented students. Two surveys of Davis undergraduates have been conducted to ascertain their post-graduation plans. Each student was asked to list their immediate objective and to rank their first, second, and third options. In both 1978 and 1980 most persons planned to pursue additional education and training including graduate studies in toxicology (Table 2). This situation closely parallels experience in the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences where about 65% of graduates pursue additional education and training within 5 years of the award of their BS degrees. Respondents were about equally divided in their preference of either industrial or governmental work. Limited availability of job descriptions for entry level positions in toxicology no doubt contributes to student uncertainty about opportunities in the industrial, governmental, and academic sectors.

There is a close similarity between student aspirations and activities of recent graduates of the Davis program. About half of the 65 thus far degreed have pursued additional education and training in graduate or professional programs including medicine, dentistry, and toxicology. Many others have taken entry levels positions in industry and government with toxicologyrelated responsibilities. Career development of these persons will be of considerable interest to educators as a means to evaluate and to enhance the quality of emerging, innovative undergraduate programs.

Master of Science: University of Arizona

A Master of Science Program in Toxicology was started at the University of Arizona in the spring of 1973. Administratively, it is a free-standing MS program which initially functioned under the direction of the Coordinator of Interdisciplinary Programs. A Toxicology Program Committee composed primarily of members from the Departments of Chemistry, Biochemistry, Internal Medicine, Pharmacology, Pathology, Cell Biology, Entomology as well as members of the University Analytical Center and the College of Nursing was established to oversee the direction and progress of the Program. The makeup of this Committee insured that toxicology would be a campuswide program with a truly interdisciplinary nature. Recently, the administration of the Toxicology Program was moved to the College of Pharmacy. However, the campus-wide Toxicology Program Committee was retained to decide on such matters as curriculum and the overall direction of the Toxicology Program.

Overall goals of our program leading to a Master of Science degree in Toxicology are to train students with a strong laboratory experience, a broad overview of toxicology and a realistic approach to problem solving. These goals are partly accomplished by providing instruction in the basic disciplines closely associated with toxicology. These include biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology and pathology. The courses in physiology and pathology both include laboratory. In addition, students are provided with courses that emphasize both general and specialized areas of toxicology. Laboratory experience in toxicology is emphasized in two courses: Analytical Toxicology and Biotoxicology. Analytical Toxicology trains students in various separation techniques and in instrumentation. Biotoxicology laboratory provides instructions on the use of laboratory animals in assessing toxicologidal problems. A laboratory research thesis is required so the student will have an in-depth knowledge in one area of -oxicology and to assure that the program is training individuals who could function independently in a toxicology laboratory. By proper selection of electives and a research problem, students can specialize in such areas as Industrial, Agricultural, Environmental and Analytical Toxicology.

When the program began in 1973, 4 students were enrolled. By the beginning of 1980, 35 students were enrolled as full-time Masters candidates in Toxicology. By the end of 1980 the program will have awarded degrees to 46 students. From an applicant pool of approximately 100, 10 to 12 new students are selected each year for this popular program. In addition to its own students, the Toxicology Program offers instruction to students from Pharmacology, Biochemistry, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nutrition, Entomology, Safety Management, and Nursing. Several of these students are PhD candidates who have elected to minor in toxicology.

In addition to providing education in toxicology at the University of Arizona, the program also provides service and resources for the Arizona Center for Occupational Safety and Health, the University of Arizona Cancer Center, and the Industrial Hygiene Program at the University of Arizona. In addition, the students are often sought for technical positions in various laboratories, throughout the university while they are pursuing their degree.

Because of the success of the Masters Program and because of student demand, a PhD program in Toxicology has recently been established. This program operates jointly from the Toxicology Program and the Departments of Pharmacology in the Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy. At present seven students are enrolled in this program, five of whom are specializing in Environmental Toxicology.

Students awarded the Masters degree have found employment in a variety of areas. Of the 46 degrees awarded to date, 15 students are employed for industrial concerns, 14 students are enrolled in or have graduated from MD or PhD programs, 9 students are working in university of hospital laboratories, 2 students are working for federal agencies, and 2 students are enrolled in or graduated with MS degrees in Safety Management. The remaining students have accepted positions unrelated to toxicology.

Master of Toxicological Sciences: University of San Francisco

A Master of Toxicological Sciences Program has been developed at the University of San Francisco to meet immediate needs for trained personnel in both government agencies and industry. A unique feature of the program is that current experience in industry or government in a position dealing with health and safety is ordinarily required for admission. That is to say, the students in some cases are already employed in "toxicology"! As a result, course instruction is offered only on weekends during the one-year period devoted to didactic instruction.

Fundamentals of toxicology and a survey knowledge in several areas of specialization are presented. The student may pursue one of two options -- an emphasis in regulatory affairs or in applied toxicology. Students are required to make this choice by the end of the first semester. In addition, each student develops an in-depth knowledge of the specialty related to the thesis topic. The thesis may be either a literature review of the toxicology of an agent or class of compounds or a report of original research. In the latter case it is assumed that facilities of the students' employers will be utilized since limited University facilities are available. Completion of the thesis and passing a comprehensive examination are required of the degree candidates. The program is particularly interesting and important to individuals with several different backgrounds: persons in public health positions who desire to increase their knowledge of toxicology so that they may communicate more effectively with others on the health team; laboratory technicians who have considerable on-the-job training and experience who wish to strengthen their academic background to open the possibilities for broader careers in the laboratory or in product safety/liability or in regulatory affairs; persons desiring mid-career changes who have a strong background in the biological/chemical sciences constitute the other easily identified candidates. Each of these groups bring particular aptitudes and needs to the program, and presently 70 students are enrolled.

Instruction and guidance at the University of San Francisco are provided by permanent staff as well as by a large number of adjunct faculty. These faculty have professional experience as toxicologists or are recognized as experts in related disciplines. In addition to their roles as lecturers in the program, some adjunct faculty advise and direct thesis research.

Post-doctoral Master of Science: Thomas Jefferson University

A special 2-year, post-doctoral training program in toxicology leads to a Master of Science degree at Thomas Jefferson University. A PhD degree in Pharmacology and/or Toxicology is also offered bv the Department of Pharmacology. The aim of the Toxicology Training Program is to redirect individuals who have already earned a PhD in chemistry, biology or a closelv related discipline so that thev may prusue careers in environmental and industrial toxicology. The professional Masters degree beyond the doctorate represents a new method for bringing trained I scientists into toxicology. Four postdoctoral trainees are presently enrolled and supported by an NIH training grant while a fifth trainee holds an industrial fellowship.

Because of research projects and training in toxicology being conducted by members of the Department of Pharmacology and other departments within the University, faculty are in frequent communication with directors or administrators of industrial or toxicology programs and employment agencies who are eager to employ recent graduates or who ask for consultation and help with their problems. Neither this institution nor other toxicology training centers can adequately meet the needs of industry and government at our current training levels. Thus, people are being hired who possess PhD degrees in a variety of scientific disciplines and then receive some degree of on-the-job training in toxicology. This form of training is of a patchwork nature at best and cannot substitute for rigorous training in toxicology.

The goal of the training program is to meet both the short- and long-term requirements in the training of toxicologists by expanding our existing PhD program to train post-doctoral fellows who can actively and efficiently become engaged in toxicological work.

The MS program includes formal course work, participation in toxicology research, and a working rotating internship in laboratories which perform research and service work in industrial toxicology, a laboratory devoted to toxicity testing on a contract basis, a bioanalytical and forensic toxicology laboratory, and a company in which a toxicologist will present regulatory problems relating to employee and environmental health. This experience aids the fellow in selecting the specific branch of toxicology in which to work. Thus fellows may elect to work as toxicologists for specific chemical companies which operate their own toxicology laboratories in which toxicologists are concerned with designing and performing toxicity studies. Alternatively the companies may contract toxicity testing to commerical laboratories. In the latter event toxicologists will be required to make judgments of the quality of testing labs and their competence before assigning projects. The students are prepared to design experiments, interpret results, and make recommendations to their companies based upon test results. Additionally emphasis is placed upon the role of the toxicologist in assisting in decisionmaking relating to regulatory affairs and environmental impacts of chemical technologies. The training program basically consists of three phases.

The first phase is a series of required and elective courses that are currently given to medical or graduate students. In some cases the courses have been initiated and given preferentially to the post-doctoral group. The required basic course work consists of 22 credits and the elective course work consists of 8 credits. The second phase of study provides an opportunity for the fellows to observe and to discuss with faculty members ongoing research projects in toxicology and related areas such as teratology or carcinogenesis. The postdoctoral fellows also are required to visit an industrial laboratory, a contract testing laboratory, a commercial analytical forensic laboratory, and an industrial and environmental toxicology group. These short-term visits (about 2 weeks) are designed to acquaint the students with day-to-day activities of professionals.

Finally the third phase of training consists of a research project conducted with supervision of participating faculty. This work provides the student an in-depth knowledge of one field of toxicological research related to other areas of occupational and environmental toxicology. Since the candidates have proficiency in research they can be readily introduced into toxicological research with its particular problems and thought processes. For instance, problems currently under study are benzene toxicity, pesticide-carcinogen interactions heavy metal-membrane interactions, effects of stress on carcinogenesis, toxic effects of drugs on bone marrow, mass spectrometric analysis of metabolites of chemicals, behavioral toxicology, biochemical toxicology, teratology, and chemical events preceding chemically induced birth defects.

A written report of the research project is required and serves as the basis of an oral examination in toxicology before a panel of faculty members. Successful candidates will be awarded the degree of Master of Science in Industrial and Environmental Toxicology.

Conclusion

Considerable attention of professionals in toxicology has been directed toward identification of toxicology as a discipline and to development of a consensus about the characteristics of adequate education and training. Both the 1965 Education Committee Report to the Society of Toxicology and a 1974 paper "Graduate Training in Toxicology" (Plaa, 1974) concluded as follows: "Toxicology and the training of toxicologists is changing. Our training at this stage seems to be centered along traditional lines. What we need to do is to critically examine our programs and not be reluctant to exploit newer, unconventional approaches." Plaa continued, "This Summation written in 1965 is still applicable in 1973." Although intended to describe graduate training, Plaa's comments effectively describe some of the present responses of educators which have been discussed in this forum on Special Programs. Development of improved means to meet student needs for education and training in toxicology warrant careful consideration and continued support of professionals in academia, industry and government.